A piece of data is a simple raw fact that reflects a particular event, e.g.,
The current in a circuit is 0.5 A when the voltage is 10 V
A student’s exam mark is 65 %
A cheque for £53 is debited to a bank account.
A
single data item on its own is meaningless.
Consider the number 256. 256
what? Cars on the A19? Pink elephants? Let’s
put it with some other numbers:
256, 294, 330, 349, 392, 440, 494, 512.
Even if you knew that these data items were related, they would still be meaningless. They would be more meaningful if you put them into the context of frequencies in Hertz. But not many people would understand the significance. If you were to represent them as:
Musicians would immediately recognise this as the scale of C major, and would put a name to each note, i.e. C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C.
Information is the collection of a series of related pieces of data processed into a coherent and understandable form:
The complete set of values of voltage and current in a circuit to draw a graph.
The complete set of results for a class of students sitting an exam
The monthly bank statement for a particular customer.
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Write down what processing can be done to turn the following data items into information. One has been done as an example. |
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Data
Item |
Information |
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Stock items |
Number
multiplied by price of each gives total value |
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Temperature readings |
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Customer’s transactions |
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Time off work |
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Knowledge is really the way that we respond to information. The facts and figures help us to function, but it’s not the whole answer. We have knowledge that stems from rules, the likely effects of certain courses of action:
Students do well if they attend regularly and do all the work set.
You will get a speeding fine if you drive at 100 km/h in a 50 km/h limit. Most people know this and don’t drive above the speed limit (?).
In ICT we refer to knowledge as how information given out by computers is used to make decisions.
Knowledge from the information gained from processed data can help us to:
Draw conclusions, e.g., that the voltage and current in a resistor are proportional.
Make day-to-day running decisions, e.g., how much bread do we need for our café today
Analyse problems, e.g. what is the best way to make this product?
Market and launch a new product.
Question 2 Write down two ways in which information from an ICT system can be used as knowledge from which a decision can be made. ANSWER
Professional people are those whose specialist knowledge gives them the expertise to provide services and make decisions on a wealth of formal and informal facts and rules gained through years of training and experience.
Wisdom can be thought of as the constructive use of one’s knowledge and experience to the benefit of others, possibly to the disadvantage to oneself. Remember also:
Computers can help us immensely by processing data very rapidly to give us information. We then have to use our knowledge to help us to process the information. Computers have no knowledge at all. They are adding machines that can tell the difference between ON and OFF. True, they can do amazing things. For about £50 you can buy a flight simulator that you can use to fly from any airport in the world to any other, and you can see the scenery in between. Indeed some flying organisations use it for their basic pilot training. If you crash a plane, it doesn’t matter! However, computers do not think, nor do they know anything. They are electronic filing cabinets and adding machines. Even the CRAY Supercomputer is an adding machine that can add up like greased lightning.
Question 3 Explain why a simulator can help a new pilot to train. ANSWER
Collection of Data
We can collect data directly:
An employee clocks on with a punched card
Voltage and current are sensed with voltmeter and ammeter sensors
A library book’s bar code is scanned into the computer.
Credit card transactions are logged so that the monthly bill is sent to the account holder.
This is often called data capture.
Data can be collected indirectly. It is used for a purpose other than the original purpose. For example, the transaction data for a credit card holder can be used to build up a profile of the customer. The bank sells details of the customer to companies that market products and services that the customer is most likely to use.
It is obviously important that the data is accurate, up-to-date, and complete, but we can think of occasions when it has not been. This might lead to
Simple amusement, e.g. a wildly wrong spelling of a name.
Considerable distress and inconvenience, for example a person might be given a bad credit rating due to a mistake in a data entry, and their mortgage application is rejected.
A dangerous situation, e.g. two aeroplanes heading straight for each other.
Question 4. What do you understand by poor quality data? Give examples to illustrate your answer. ANSWER
Keeping data so that it is high quality is important to a business. Mistakes can be expensive; an annoyed customer will take her trade elsewhere. However the maintenance of data is an ongoing and expensive activity:
Customers move,
Companies go bankrupt,
New companies start.
Rates for a service change all the time.
A current radio advert starts:
"I am Michelle. I am Michelle. I am 37. I am 44. I am happily married. I have recently divorced. I am a home maker. I work for an industrial die manufacturer in Reading..."
The company whose radio advert this is makes its living by making sure that the databases of large organisations are kept up to date. While addressing a letter to Michelle and her ex might not be the biggest disaster in the world, it would probably cause Michelle no end of annoyance. Annoyed customers will take their trade elsewhere.
Question 5 Explain why the maintenance of company databases is expensive. ANSWER
Any subjective description of something is based on a value judgement. Some people might describe another person as “rude and bad-mannered”, whereas others might describe the same person as “good laugh”. One person might gain a lot from a particular computing lesson; for another it could be a complete turn off. Questionnaires try to code value judgements. You tick boxes marked from Excellent to Very Poor. This can be difficult, especially when you are asked to tick one box only, but your judgement lies between two boxes!
This is an example:
Poor information can lead to loss in sales or failure to satisfy demand. Accurate sales predictions can lead to good profits; accurate prediction depends on accurate information. Stores can analyse the buying patterns of certain groups of customers by monitoring loyalty cards. For example, it has been found that on a Friday evening, men between 20 and 40 were buying disposable nappies. Cans of beer were located near to the nappies and sales of beer rocketed!
Analysis of purchasing patterns of customers can allow companies to target information about appropriate products that might be of interest to a particular individual:
A young man may well be interested in Hi-Fi equipment, or bits for his car. He won’t be interested in nappies or retirement homes.
A middle aged woman may be interested in things to do up the home, or cosmetics. She isn’t likely to be interested in customising a car.
Question 6. Explain how a supermarket chain might use ICT to target products to different kinds of customer. ANSWER
If a company gets it wrong, at best they will look stupid. Products addressed to dead people are especially distressing. Getting it right is particularly important to companies that sell products by direct mail. They regularly update their information or purchase updated information.
Many companies and charities sell their information, e.g. mailing lists, on to other companies to make use of it, and this is a regular source of income. This is how companies get your address to bombard you with junk mail. Some people love junk mail; most of us loathe it!
Question 7. Give two ways in which bad information can damage a company’s image. ANSWER
Personal data on individuals can be held by many organisations:
Employers (qualifications, salary, other work related data).
Stores (purchases, account history)
Banks
Insurance companies (property, cars, accidents, health)
Doctors
Police if you have a criminal record.
A very detailed profile of an individual can be accessed from anywhere in the world and can be used (or misused). It does not take a genius to see that the storage of such data can result in an invasion of our privacy, which is a fundamental right, which we take for granted. Furthermore, incorrect data has resulted for some individuals in considerable distress or inconvenience.
The use of data is governed by the Data Protection Act 1984. Further legislation grants you the opportunity to prevent your details being passed on. On registration and similar forms used to provide information, there is a tick box to this effect.
It is clear that you don’t want any old Tom, Dick, or Harry getting access to your personal files. There are lots of ways to protect the integrity and security of data. We need to protect against:
Inaccurate data entry
Accidental alteration
Malicious alteration
Theft
Destruction
Standard clerical procedures will help to maintain the quality of data by prevention of:
Input errors (wrong transcription, keying in transactions twice, or loss of transactions).
Errors in operating procedures
This is achieved by:
Only authorised persons do input data entry.
Input data undergoes verification procedures.
Input data control procedures to verify accuracy of the data to guard against duplication
Output data is checked for reasonableness and integrity
Once used, sensitive documents are shredded.
Disks are write-protected to make sure they are not accidentally overwritten.
Use of user ID’s and confidential passwords that are changed regularly.
Access by personnel only to data that they are authorised to see.
A priority listing of users. Only the highest priority of user can view all the data and alter it. For example a doctor’s receptionist can view the names and addresses of patients, but not their medical records
Program errors can corrupt files. These might be already in the program and not surface for some time. Or they could be introduced during maintenance.
Question 8 Describe three things that can happen to data that can make it wrong and suggest ways in which each of the faults can be corrected. ANSWER
By law you are entitled to see certain kinds of data that is held on you, for example credit ratings. You are asked to pay a small fee (£1) for access. You may also view your medical records, although often the local health trust does not exactly go out of its way to help you. Some data is kept confidential within an organisation, and gaining access to it can be difficult. Some data will never be revealed, including:
Data to do with national security
Data for tax or excise duty
Data held on police computers if it is concerned with prevention of crime.
Data is a valuable commodity and is bought by many commercial organisations to target potential customers.
